Chopper Fed Dc Motor

INTRODUCTION During the nineteenth century, when power supply was dc, dc motors were used extensively to draw power direct from the dc source. The motor speed could be varied by adjusting field current by a rheostat. That was an open loop control. Most of the drives were constant speed and the characteristics could not be matched with a job requirement. A vast development in the dc drives system took place when the ward Leonard Control System was introduced in the 1980s. The system was motor-generator system to deliver power to the drive motor. The supply power available was still dc and dc motor was used to drive the dc generator set at a more or less constant speed. Afterwards when the ac power system came into existence and became popular, ac motors were developed and became attractive owing to their constructional simplicity, ruggedness and lower initial as well as maintenance cost. Machine requiring variable speed drives use the ward Leonard System employing ac motors driving dc motors at a constant speed. In the 1950s electronic came into existence and brought about remarkable improvement in the speed control system. The open- loop manual control system was replaced by close loop feedback control, which resulted in improved response and better accuracy. Initially, gas diodes and ignitrons were developed and ac to dc converters were used to control dc motors. The advent of thyristors capable of handling large current has revolutionized the field of electric power control. Thyratrons, ignitrons, mercury arc rectifiers, magnetic amplifiers and motor generator sets have all been replaced by solid state circuits employing semi-conductor diodes and thyristors. Thyristor controlled drives employing both ac and dc motors find wide applications in industry as variable speed drives. In the 1960s ac power was converted into dc power for direct control of drive motors with solid state devices (high power silicon diodes and silicon controlled rectifiers). Initially saturable reactors were employed in conjunction with power silicon rectifiers for dc drives. Of late solid state circuits using semi- conductor diodes and thyristors are becoming popular for controlling the speed of ac and dc otors and are progressively replacing the traditional electric power control circuit based on thyratrons, ignitrons, mercury arc rectifiers, magnetic amplifiers, motor-generator sets, etc as compared to the electric and electro-mechanical systems of speed control. The electronic system has higher accuracy, greater reliability, and quick response and also has higher efficiency as there is no I2R losses and moving parts. Moreover four-quadrant speed control is possi ble to meet precise high standards. All electronic circuits control the speed of the motor by controlling either, ? The voltage applied to the motor armature or ? The field current or ? Both of the above DC motors can be run from dc supply if available or from ac supply, after it has been converted to dc supply with the help of rectifiers which can be either half wave or full wave and either controlled ( by varying the conduction angle of the thyristors used) or uncontrolled. AC motors can be run on the ac supply or from dc supply, after it has been converted into ac supply with the help of inverters (opposite of rectifiers). As stated above, the average output voltage of a thyristors controlled rectifiers by changing its conduction angle and hence the armature voltage can be adjusted to control its speed. When run on a dc supply, the armature dc voltage can be changed with the help of uncontrolled rectifiers (using only diodes and not thyristors). The dc voltages so obtained can be then chopped with the help of a thyristors chopper circuit. In this method of speed control of a dc motor, available ac supply is first rectified into dc supply using uncontrolled rectifiers. The supply is then filtered and smooth ended dc output is supplied to the thyristors chopper. It allows dc to flow through for the time Ton and then disconnects for the time Toff. This cycle is repeated. During supply-on period (i. e. for the time period Ton) the dc motor gets supply and accelerates. During the supply off period Toff (i. e. for the time period Toff) there is no supply to the motor and the motor decelerates till the next on cycle begins. If the cycles repeated continuously at a definite frequency and the elements of the cycle are maintained in a fixed relationship, the motor will then operate at a constant voltage across the motor will be, V0 = (V*Ton)/(Ton +Toff) = (V*Ton)/T = f*V*Ton The dc voltage across the motor can be control by varying the Time Ratio Control (TRC) which may be accomplished by, ? Varying the duration of the on-time, Ton keeping the total time period, T or frequency, f constant ? Keeping the on- time, Ton constant and varying the frequency, f. ? Varying both. The Variable dc voltage below the supply dc voltage is made available to the dc motor and therefore, the motor speed available is below base speed. For automatic control of speed, both current feedback and speed feedback is used. BRIEF DISCUSSION ON CHOPPER A dc chopper is a static device used to obtain variable dc voltage from a source of constant dc voltage. The dc chopper offers great efficiency, faster response, smooth control, lower maintenance, small size, etc. Solid state chopper due to various advantages are widely used in the battery operated vehicles, traction motor control, control of a large number of dc motors from a common dc bus with a considerable improvement of power factor. PRINCIPLE OF CHOPPER OPERATION: A chopper is a thyristors on/ off switch that connects load to and disconnects it from the supply and produces a chopped load voltage from a constant input voltage. The chopper is represented by a thyristors (SCR). It is triggered periodically and is kept conducting for a period Ton and is blocked for a period Toff. During the period Ton, when the chopper is on, the supply terminals is connected to the load terminals. And during the interval Toff when the chopper is off, load current flows from the freewheeling diode Df. So, the load terminals are short circuited by Df and load voltage is therefore zero during Toff. Hence the chopper dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. Now, the average load voltage, Eo is given by Eo = Edc*? [? =Duty Cycle=(Ton/Toff)] Or, Eo = Edc*(Ton/T) [T=Ton + Toff] So the voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle, ? of the chopper. CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPER: Power semiconductor devices are used in chopper circuits are uni-directional device. A chopper can however operate in any of the four quadrants by an appropriate arrangement of semiconductor devices. These characteristics of their operation in any of the four quadrants form the basis of their classification as, 1. Type-A or First Quadrant Chopper 2. Type-B or Second Quadrant Chopper. 3. Type-C or Two Quadrant Type-A Chopper 4. Type-D or Two Quadrant or Type-B Chopper 5. Type-E or Four Quadrant Chopper. PERFORMANCE EQUATION OF DC MOTORS The equivalent circuit and on its basis the performance equation of a separately-excited dc Motor and series dc motor are presented below. ? Separately-excited dc motor: The equivalent circuit of a separately-excited dc motor coupled with a load under steady state condition is shown in the fig 4. 1. The load torque, TL opposes the electro-magnetic torque, Te. For the field circuit, Vf = If*rf For the armature circuit, Vt = Ia + Ia*ra Motor back emf or armature emf, Ea=Ka ? Ia=Km? m ————– (4. 1) Te=ka ? Ia = KmIa Also, Te = D wm + TL where, rf=Field circuit resistance in ohm, Ia=Armature current in A, Vt=Motor terminal voltage in V, ra=Armature circuit resistance in ohm, Km=Ka ?=Torque constant in Nm/A*emf constant in V-sec/rad, m=Angular speed of motor in rad/sec, D=Viscous friction constant in Nm-sec/rad. Electromagnetic power, P=wmTe watts From equation (1), Ea=Kmwm=Vt-Iara Or wm= (Vt – Iara)/Km= (Vt – Iara)/Ka ? ——————– (4. 1) So it is seen from equation (4. 2) that speed can be controlled by varying, ? Armature terminal voltage, Vt : This method is k nown as Armature-voltage control. Speed below base speed is obtained by this method. ? Field flux, ? : This method is known as Field flux control. Speed above base speed is obtained by this method. ? DC Series Motor: In a dc series motor, field winding is in series with the armature circuit. It is designed to carry the rated armature current. The fig. shows the equivalent circuit of a dc series motor driving load with load torque, TL. For the armature circuit, Vt = Ea + Ia ( ra+ rs ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. (4. 3) Te = Ka ? Ia For no saturation in the magnetic circuit, ? = CIa Hence, Te = KaCIa2 = KIa2 Also, Ea = Ka ? wm = KaCIawm = KIawm From eqn (4. 3), Vt = KIawm + Ia (ra + rs) = Ia [ Kwm + (ra + rs)] Or, speed wm = (Vt/ KIa) – (ra +rs)/K †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. (4. 4) where, rs = Series field resistance in ohm, K = KaC = constant in Nm/A2 or in V-sec/ A- rad. CLOSED LOOP CONTROL OF CHOPPER FED DC MOTOR For practical purposes motors are required to operate at desired speed with low losses to meet the desired load –torque characteristics which depends on the armature current. Suppose a motor is operating at a particular speed an suddenly a load is applied, the speed falls and the motors takes time to come up to the desired speed . but a speed feed back with an inner current loop provides faster response to any disturbance in speed command ,load torque and supply voltage. Another reason for the requirement of feedback loop in dc drives is that, the armature of a large motor represents very small impedance which when supplied with nominal voltage would result in an excessive current of up to 10 times the nominal value. Under normal conditions, this is prevented by the induced armature voltage, E which cancels most of the applied voltage, Va so that only the difference is driving the armature current, Ia. But under transient conditions or steady state over load of the motor, there is always a danger of excessive currents due to sudden torque demand and rapidly changing armature voltage or speed . t is therefore important to provide a fast current or torque limit to protect the motor, the power supply and the load. This is best realized by feedback control establishing an effective safe guard against electrical and mechanical stresses. In it the output of the speed controller, Ec is applied to the current limiter which sets the reference current, Ia (ref erence) for the current loop. the armature current is sensed by a current sensor, after being filtered by an active filter to remove ripples which is then compared with the reference current, Ia (ref. the error current is processed through a current controller whose output, Vc adjusts the firing angle of the chopper and brings the motor speed to the desired value. Any positive speed error caused by an increased in either speed command or load torque demand can produce a high reference current, Ia (ref) the motor accelerates to correct the speed error and finally settles down at any reference current, Ia(ref) which makes the motor torque equal to the load torque resultant in a speed error closed to zero. For any large positive speed error, current limiter saturates and limits the reference currents, Ia (ref) to a maximum value, Ia (max) the speed error is then corrected at the maximum permissible armature current ,Ia(max)until the speed error becomes small and the current limiters comes out of the saturation . normally ,the speed error is corrected with the Ia less than the maximum permissible armature current, Ia max. For speeds below the base speeds, the field error, Ef is large and the field controller saturates thereby applying the maximum ield voltage and current. The speed control from zero to base speed is normally done at the maximum field by armature voltage control. When the speed is closed to the base speed, Va is almost near the rated value and field controller comes out of saturation. The speed control above base speed is generally done by field weakening at the rated armature voltage. In the field control loop, the back emf Eb is compared with a reference voltage , Eb ( ref) the value of which is generally between 0. 85 to 0. 95 of the rated armature voltage. For a speed command above the base speed, the speed error causes a higher value of Va then motor accelerates, back emf , Eb increases and field error, Ef decreases. The field current when decreases and the motor speed continue to increase until it reaches the desired speed. In this mode of operation, the drive responds slowly due to large field time constant. A full converter is generally used in the field because it has the ability to reverse the voltage thereby reducing the field current much faster as compared to the semi converter. MODELING AND OBSERVATIONS ? Modeling using Matlab: ? DC Motor with Load Parameter given: Voltage = 220v Current = 6. 2A Ra = 4 ohm La = 0. 072H Speed = 1470 rpm J = 0. 0607 kg-m2 Kb= 1. 26v/rad/sec Bt =0. 0869N-m/rad/sec Parameters calculated: Ta=La/Ra= 0. 02sec Tm=j/Bt =0. 7sec K1 = Bt/[KB2 + Ra Bt] =0. 0449 -1/T1 – 1/T2 =-1/2[Bt/J +Ra/La] + sqre[1/4(Bi/J + Ra/La)2-{(Kb2 + Ra Bt ) /JLa}] T1 = 0. 1077sec T2 = 0. 0208sec Tm = J/Bt = 0. 7sec DC MotorTransfer function: I(s)/V(s) =[k1(1+sTm)]/ [(1+sT1)(1+sT2)]= [0. 032s+0. 045]/[0. 002s2+0. 4s+1] wm(s)/I(s)= Kb/Bt(1+sTm) =14. 5/(1+0. 75) Converter Transfer function Kr =1. 35V/Vcm =1. 35*230/10 =31. 05V/v Tr = 1/12*Fs = 1/12*50 =0. 00166sec T. F = kr/(1+sTr) =31. 05/(1+0. 00166s) Design of Current Controller Tc=T2=0. 0208sec K = T1/2Tr = 0. 1077/2*0. 00166 = 32. 43 Kc = KTc/k1HCKrTm =32. 43 *0. 0208/0. 0449*1*31. 05*0. 7 =0. 69 Transfer function Gc(s) = Kc(1+sTc)/sTc = 0. 69(1+0. 0208s)/0. 0208s = 0. 69 + 0. 0143s/0. 0208s Current Loop I(s)/I*(s) = Ki/(1+sTi) Ti = T3/1+ kfi Ki = kfi/Hc(1+ kfi) Kfi = KcKrKiTmHc/Tc Kfi = 0. 9*31. 05*0. 0449*0. 7*1/0. 0208 Kfi = 32. 44 Ki = Kfi/HC(1+ Kfi) Kfi = 32. 44/1*(1+32. 44) Kfi = 0. 97 Ti = T3/(1+ Kfi) = T1+Tr/(1+ Kfi) = 0. 1077+0. 00166/1+32. 44 = 0. 0032sec Speed controller Design T4 = Ti + Tw K2 = Ki Kb Hw /Bt Tm K2 = 0. 97*1. 26*1/0. 0869*0. 7 K2 = 20. 092 KS = 1/(2 Kt T4) KS = 1/2*20. 092*0. 0032 KS = 7. 77 Ts = 4T4 =4*0. 0032 Ts = 0. 0128 Transfer function T. F = KS (1+sTS)/sTS = 7. 77(1+0. 0128s)/0. 0128s = (7. 77 + 0. 0994)/0. 0128s ? Modeling using PSIM: Parameters Given: Source (Vdc) = 800V Transistor (npn): Saturation Voltage = 0 Initial Position = 0 Current Flag = 1 Gating Block (G): Frequency = 50Hz Number of Points = 2 Switching Points = [0 180] Diode (D): Diode Voltage Drop = 0 Initial Position = 0 Current Flag = 0 Inductor (L): Inductance = 0. 01 Initial Current = 0A Current Flag = 0 Capacitor (C): Capacitance = 0. 00005F Initial Capacitive Voltage = 0V Current Flag = 0 DC MOTOR (DCM): Ra = 0. 055 ohm La = 0. 01H Rf = 55 ohm Lf = 0. 02H MI = 0. 2 Vt = 440V Ia = 80A If = 4A n = 1500rpm Torque Flag = 0 Master/Slave Flag = 1 Field Source = 400V Speed Sensor (Ws): Gain = 1 Simulation Control: Time Step = 1e-005 Total Time = 0. 02 Print Time = 0 Print Step = 1 Load Flag = 0 Slave Flag = 0 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS DC drives are highly versatile energy conversion devices. It can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting, accelerating and decelerating torques. At the same time dc drives are easily adaptable for wide range of speed control and quick reversal. So, in industrial application where accurate control of speed and / or torque is required chopper controlled dc drives are unrivalled. Therefore, chopper controlled dc motors are universally employed in steel and aluminum mills, power shovels, electric elevators, railway locomotives and large earth moving equipments. Uses o Various Chopper Controlled DC drives with reasons: | | | | |Types of DC drives |Applications |Advantages | | | |Accurate speed control can be done. |Separately Excited dc drives |Used in paper mills, steel rolling |Variation of speed from very high to low value can be| | |mills, diesel-electric propulsion of |done | | |ships, etc. | | | | |Starting torque is very high upto 500%. | | |Maximum momentary operating torque is upto 400%. | | | |Speed regulation is widely variable. It is very high | |Series dc drive |Used in hoists, cranes, conveyors, |at no load. | | |trolley-cars, electric locomotives, |Speed control by series field. | | |etc. | | |Used in lathes, centrifugal pumps, |Starting torque is medium, usually limited to 250% by| |Constant speed dc shunt drive |reciprocating pumps, fans, blo wers, |a starting resistance but may be increased. | | |conveyors, spinning and weaving |Maximum momentary operating torque is usually limited| | |machines, etc. to about 200% by commutation. | | | |Speed regulation is about 5-10 %. | | | |Speed increases about 200% by field control and | | | |decreases by armature voltage control. | | |Starting torque is medium, usually limited to 250% by| | | |a starting resistance but may be increased. | | | |Maximum momentary operating torque is usually limited| |Adjustable speed dc shunt drives |Used for application requiring |to about 200% by commutation. | |adjustable speed control, either | | | |constant torque or constant output. | | SCOPE OF MODIFICATIONS Chopper controlled dc drives are widely used in hoists, cranes, elevators, shears, crushers, conveyor, blending mills, punch presses, air compressors, ice making machines, tractions, etc. So these drives should be modified in the following ways to make them more efficient and accurate, 1. The chopper controlled dc motors should be made with large diameter armatures and large pole size of reduced height. 2. The yoke as well as the main and commutating poles should be well laminated to reduce the eddy current effect and to improve the commutation. 3. Large numbers of commutator bars should be used to reduce the voltage between the commutator segments and to improve the commutation. 4. The commutator should be made larger in order to provide extra insulation to withstand large and rapid voltage fluctuations. 5. Compensating windings should be used in large motors to reduce the armature reactions effects. 6. The current densities used for the armature and Interpol windings should be reduced as compared to the conventional dc motors of the same frame size and rating in order to reduce the effect of heating of armature and Interpol. 7. Low inertia armature should be employed for improving the response. 8. Split brushes of good commutating quality should be used for reducing the effect of transformer voltage in the coil undergoing commutations. 9. Better class of insulation should be used to allow higher temperature rise and dissipation of more losses from a given frame. 10. Now a days chopper controlled dc drives are widely used in the automobile industries. So, it should have high efficiency and accuracy, light weight, low maintenance cost. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Electric Drives – Ramakrishnan, Prentice Hall India. 2. Power Electronics – P. S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers. 3. Software: MATLAB 6. 5 and PSIM.

Quantitative Technique

What is a linear programming problem? Discuss the scope and role of linear programming in solving management problems. Discuss and describe the role of linear programming in managerial decision-making bringing out limitations, if any. 2. Explain the concept and computational steps of the simplex method for solving linear programming problems. How would you identify whether an optimal solution to a problem obtained using simplex algorithm is unique or not? a)What is the difference between a feasible solution, a basic feasible solution, and an optimal solution of a linear programming problem? )What is the difference between simplex solution procedure for a `maximization’ and a `minimization’ problem? c)Using the concept of net contribution, provide an intuitive explanation of why the criterion for optimality for maximization problem is different from that of minimization problems. Outline the steps involved in the simplex algorithm for solving a linear programming maximiz ation problem. Also define the technical terms used therein. 3. â€Å"Linear programming is one of the most frequently and successfully employed Operations Research techniques to managerial and business decisions. ’ Elucidate this statement with some examples. †¦2†¦ †¦2†¦ 4. Describe the transporation problem and give its mathematical model. Explain, by taking an illustration, the North-West Corner Rule, the Least Cost Method and the Vogel’s Approximation Method to obtain the initial feasible solution to a transportation problem. Discuss the various methods of finding initial feasible solution of a transportation problem and state the advantages, disadvantages, and areas of application for them. 5. What is an assignment problem? It is true to say that it is a special case of the transportation problem? Explain. How can you formulate an assignment problem as a standard linear programming problem? Illustrate. What do you understand by an assignment problem? Give a brief outline for solving it. 6. What are different types of inventories? Explain. What functions does inventory perform? State the two basic inventory decisions management must make as they attempt to accomplish the functions of inventory just described by you. 7. What is queuing theory? What type of questions are sought to be answered in analyzing a queuing system? Give a general structure of the queuing system and explain. Illustrate some queuing situations. What is queuing theory? In what types of problem situations can it be applied successfully? Discuss giving examples. 8. What is a replacement problem? Describe some important replacement situations and policies. Briefly explain the costs which are relevant to decisions for replacement of depreciable assets. Illustrate their behaviour and explain how the optimal time for replacement of an asset can be determined. †¦3†¦ †¦3†¦ 9. What kinds of decision-making situations may be analysed using PERT and CPM techniques? State the major similarities between PERT and CPM. Under what circumstances is CPM a better technique of project management than PERT? A construction company has received a contract to build an office complex. It has frequently engaged itself in constructing such buildings. Which of the two network techniques, PERT and CPM, should in your opinion, be employed by the company? Why? 10. Describe the steps involved in the process of decision making. What are pay-off and regret functions? How can entries in a regret table be derived from a pay-off table? 11. What do you understand by Markov processes? In what areas of management can they be applied successfully? What do you understand by transition probabilities? Is the assumption of stationary transition probabilities realistic, in your opinion? Why or why not? 12. Explain how the probability tree helps to understand the problem of Markov processes. Explain the method of calculation of ending up in each absorbing state when a chain beings in a particular transient state. What is fundamental matrix of Markov chains? What does it calculate? 13. What is simulation? Describe the simulation process. State the major two reasons for using simulation to solve a problem. What are the advantages and limitations of simulation? `When it becomes difficult to use an optimization technique for solving a problem, one has to resort to simulation’’. Discuss. â€Å"Simulation is typically the process of carrying out sampling experiments on the models of the system rather than the system itself. ’’ Elucidate this statement by taking some examples. †¦4†¦ †¦4†¦ 14 . A company has three offers for its existing equipment in one of the divisions. The first buyer is willing to pay Rs. 50,000 at the end of 8 years’ period. The second buyer offers Rs. 39,000—consisting of an immediate payment of Rs. 14,000 and Rs. 25,000 after 6 years. The third buyer agrees to buy the equipment for Rs. 29,000 payable right away. Which is the best offer for the company if it can earn an interest @ 8% per annum on the money received? 15. What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative techniques of forecasting. When is a qualitative model appropriate? Briefly discuss the Delphi method of making forecasts. 16. a)How do you distinguish between resource leveling and resource allocation problems? State and explain an algorithm for resource allocation. b)Explain the following as they are used in PERT/CPM (i)Beta distribution, and (ii) Budget over-run. †¦5†¦ †¦5†¦ 17. The following table gives data on normal time and cost, and crash time and cost for a project. `Duration (Weeks)Total Cost (Rs) Activity NormalCrashNormalCrash 1 – 232300450 2 – 333 75 75 2 – 453200300 2 – 544120120 3 – 441100190 4 – 632 90130 5 – 6 31 60110 i)Draw the network and find out the critical path and the normal project duration. ii)Find out the total float associated with each activity. iii)If the indirect costs are Rs. 100 per week, find out the optimum duration by crashing and the corresponding project costs. iv)With the crash duration indicated, what would be the minimum crash duration possible, ignoring indirect costs? 8. What is a `game’ in game theory? What are the properties of a game? Explain the â€Å"best strategy’’ on the basis of minimax criterion of optimality. Describe the maximin and minimax principles of game theory. †¦6†¦ †¦6†¦ 19. Explain the steps involved in solut ion to dynamic programming problems. Explain the following in the context of dynamic programming: (a)Stages (b)States (c)Pay-off function (d)Recursive relationship 20. A political campaign for election to the parliament is entering its final stage and pre-poll surveys are medicating a very close contest in a certain constituency. One of the candidates in the constituency has sufficient funds to give five full-page advertisements in four different areas. Based on the polling information, an estimate has been made of the approximate number (in thousands) of additional votes that can be polled in different areas. This is shown below. No. ofArea Commercial AdsABCD 0 0 0 0 0 1913117 21517115 31212325 425232129 531252733 Using dynamic programming, determine how the five commercial ads be distributed between the four areas so as to maximize the estimated number of votes.

Parent Child Relations Essay Essay

This paper will briefly describe how Hinduism reflects my upbringings, as well as my abilities to communicate with multicultural parents, and their children. This essay will entail the traditions and values that shape my identity, as well as my everyday life. Furthermore, my in depth detail of the struggles and hardships that immigrants have to deal with will allow me to sympathize for whomever deals with similar circumstances. Part One A While my household consists of a two- parent family, both parents differ in numerous ways. The main differences that may be drawn to are culture. Culturally, both my parents were brought up in different ways, which eventually leads to it affecting my upbringing. My father was born and raised in India where he followed one solid tradition. However, my mother was raised in England, following the same tradition, while she celebrated holidays that were outside of her religion, such as Christmas and Thanksgiving. This mixture of culture and tradition, from both my parents, allows me to have a greater scope of the variety of religious there are out there. Being from an origin of the Hindu background, there are several religious practices that shape the family relationship. Many of the cultural traditions that Hindu’s follow throughout the year indirectly or directly deal with family relationships, and connection through certain experiences. An example of one of the main traditions that happen every year is Raksha Bandhan. Raksha Bandhan is a day solely devoted to the bond of the brother and sister. On this specific day, sisters are asked to tie a Rakhi around the brother’s wrist, which signifies the sisters praying for a life filled with love, happiness and prosperity (Raksha Bandhan n.d.). A Rakhi is  a symbolic thread, which represents the love and affection a sister has for her brother. It can also be said â€Å" this frail of thread of Rakhi is considered stronger than iron chains as it binds the most beautiful relationship in an inseparable bond of love and trust† (Raksha Bandhan n.d.). While growing up, socialization from family and friends had a dramatic effect on the person I am today. Although the lessons I have learnt as a child did not directly take place verbally, many were learned from observing my parents as they were going through their daily lives. Not only did socialization affect the relationship between my parents and I, but it also taught me to adapt to social rules, and acquire a new outlook on culture. Part B From an early period of a child’s life, young children are taught not to discriminate amongst other cultures, and religions. Moreover, children are taught to embrace all cultures, and values that the world has to offer us, with either it be music, art, religion or a diversity of food. While examining Guthrie’s theory based on children learning new cultural patterns, I believe it is relevant to myself, for the reason that I am involved in more than one culture, even though I follow one concrete religion. From a young age, I have been taught to abide by the Hindu culture, although this does not necessarily mean I missed out on the opportunity to celebrate multiple holidays outside of my culture. Annually, my family and I celebrate numerous festivals and celebrations even though they may not relate to our specific religion or culture. It is noticed that all children can open-mindedly accept cultural patterns more easily than adults, and this may be for numerous reasons. While observing Guthrie’s theory about children learning new cultural patterns more easily than adults, I believe it would help me empathize with multicultural parents and their children by understanding the fact that young children may be curious, or feel the need to ask questions about their religion and culture. As a young child, I was never to sure about the reasons as to why we celebrated a certain tradition, or why we prayed to the specific gods that we did. Furthermore, I never felt comfortable enough asking my parents because I felt that might lecture me about religion or even look down on me. Just as I did, I believe that many  children would also be struggling with grasping the concept behind their specific religion. As an ECS professional, I would be more than willing to explain, and empathize with multicultural parents and thei r children. This is why I believe that it is critical for ESC professionals to have a clear foundation based on religion, and culture of all sorts. Part Two C While being raised to have an open mind towards religion, culture, and traditions, I find that it will be first nature for me to understand the variety of struggles that many immigrant parents had to deal with in their past. Coming from a family where my father emigrated from India, I have a broad concept of the struggles and difficulties many multicultural parents and their children may be trying to over come. While being a new immigrant, my father only knew how to speak his first language, which was Punjabi. Moreover, while he first came to Canada he only had a limited amount of money, which would only suffice him for a short period of time. Comparatively, while I was growing up, English was my first and only language, which I knew how to speak at the time. As a result, this had made a language barrier between the two of us from a young age. Even at the present age, my father and I have found ways to work around this, such as him speaking in Punjabi while I may respond in English. While dealing with this obstacle for a majority of my life, I have found ways to deal with this problem, and work around it. While working as an ECS profession, I believe that my past experience having first hand difficulties with language would be a great addition working in a child welfare agency. For instance, if I were observing a child struggling with his or her peers, I would suggest communication skills that would benefit the both of them, while teaching them skills that they could use in the future. In addition, I believe that it is important for children of all ages not to judge different cultures or languages, simply because they may not understand that specific religion This paper briefly explained the transactional and situational nature of my culture identity and how it would help me as an ECS professional. Furthermore, by using one of Guthrie’s five theories, I justified and related it to myself describing how it would assist me in helping  multicultural parents and their children. In conclusion, I believe that it is essential that ECS professionals reflect upon themselves, and their overall identity, in order to grasp the value of tradition and culture in students, and multicultural parents everyday lives. References Raksha Bandhan. (n.d.). Society for the Confluence of Festivals in India. Retrieved from http://www.raksha-bandhan.com/

Negative effects of fast food Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Negative effects of fast food - Research Paper Example Health experts have found that all fast food tends to possess greater than 35% calories from fat, greater than10% calories from saturated fats, more than 35% sugar-derived calories and 200 calories in every serving of the snack (Ashakiran and Deepthi 7). This high-sugar, high –fat content implies that fast food consumers tend to have too much cholesterol thus increasing their likelihood of becoming obese. When a person becomes obese, the high percentage of cholesterol in their body triggers a number of conditions like high blood pressure. This eventually creates a chain of other complicated conditions like stroke and heart attack, which usually cause death or permanent paralysis. The great taste and large quantities that are served in most restaurants trigger greater craving for these food items and encourages people to eat more than they should. A number of other long-term health diseases have also been cited as potential consequences of eating fast food, and these include cancer. Junk food predisposes people to breast and prostate cancer especially when they begin eating such food at an early age. The clogging of arteries that arises from the habit also leads to osteoporosis, which is a condition of the bones and hypertension as well. It may also lead to the development of tooth decay owing to the high concentration of sugars in most of these snacks and drinks. In the short term, fast food causes sharp rises and declines in blood sugar thus perpetuating the susceptibility to diabetes, especially if this runs in the family. For persons without the diabetic gene, sharp increase and decreases in sugar causes lethargy, low concentration levels at work or in school, and hence low productivity. Currie et al (32) carried out an analysis of the overall effect of fast food on public health by collecting and analysing data from California, New Jersey and Michigan. Their intension was to

Toyota Prius Marketing Campaign Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Toyota Prius Marketing Campaign - Essay Example Private owners and fleet owners have been selected as the target audience. The private owners belong to the affluent and prosperous middle class. This segment is highly conscious of factors like performance, cost, reliability, and efficiency. Fleet owners desire a product that has reduced operational and maintenance costs. Advertising, public relations, and direct marketing have been selected as the communication methods due to their broader reach, loyal customer base, and flexibility in advertising content. Television, newspapers, outdoor billboards, and email marketing are the appropriate mediums for advertisement and promotion. The direct marketing strategy will encompass various activities and processes. At the basic level, market research will be conducted about the consumer segments. Toyota has identified private owners and fleet buyers as the main segments which will be penetrated and researched. The first part of the implementation should seek to collect the statistics on the behavior, lifestyle, and attitudes of consumer segments. Market research will help Toyota to capitalize on its strengths in order to overcome limitations. A multifaceted and multidirectional strategy will help to produce superior business outcomes. Advertising, direct marketing, and public relations have been selected as the communication methods for promoting Toyota Prius.

END OF SEGREGATION, DISCRIMINATION AND ISOLATION Essay

END OF SEGREGATION, DISCRIMINATION AND ISOLATION - Essay Example They fought till the equal status. These movements were led by people such as Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his wife Coretta Scott King' Ralph David Abernathy, Medger Evers, Malcolm X, Al Sharpton, Jessie Jackson and President Abraham Lincoln. They created the path for African-Americans to become respected citizens who have rights as others. In this paper it will be discussed how African-Americans worked to end slavery, segregation, discrimination, and isolation and achieved freedom for themselves. Contents Contents 3 Segregation, Discrimination and Isolation in Post-Reconstruction Period and African American Movement 3 How African-Americans have put an End to the Segregation, Discrimination, Isolation to attain Civil Rights and Equity 5 Revolutionising their Minds and Participating in Establishment of their Nation 6 Service to White Land Owners 7 Collective Responsibility 8 Abolishment of Slavery, Segregation and Racism 8 Formation of Institutions like Schools that Improved E ducation Status of African Americans 9 Civil Right Movement 10 Conclusion 11 Reference 12 Segregation, Discrimination and Isolation in Post-Reconstruction Period and African American Movement This situation is most likely seen in South side of the America, which resulted in 7 million African American, left that area which called as the great migration. The situation in North and West was better than the south but some discrimination can be seen. Following are segregation, discrimination and isolations which happened in that time. Segregation was empowered by law itself, public facilities and government services were divided into two as "white" and "colored". And the facilities assigned to African American were underfunded or not properly maintained. African Americans stood up against segregation by conducting boycotts, sit-ins and freedom rides. Disfranchisement – White Democrats in America made African American voters inaccessible for voter registration by passing laws, and black voters were forced off from the voting rolls. Tens of thousands of African Americans were left behind from voting, and the number of voters dropped dramatically. African Americans fought this issue by establishing voter registration activities and conducting mass scale marches. Exploitation – Number of unemployment among young African American went up due to the expelling from job as well as from education. Increased economic oppression of blacks, denial of economic opportunities, and widespread employment discrimination were widely seen. They established their own schools and started to follow courses and subject which had higher economical and social value in order to face this issue. Violence – Individual, police, organizational, and mass racial violence against African Americans was widely seen. African Americans resisted this in numerous ways and sought better opportunities through lawsuits, new organizations, political redress, and labor organizing. The Nat ional Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. How African-Americans have put an End to the Segregation, Discrimination, Isolation to attain Civil Rights and Equity Segregation, discrimination, and isolation are some of the heinous acts that led to separation of people hence leading to confusion and disunity among them. In some countries, it even led to genocides because the people

Developing a Public Relations Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Developing a Public Relations Plan - Essay Example The American Red Cross is the US affiliate to International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. The organization does not have business profits as its motive of operation. On the other hand, the mission of American Red Cross is to help and save the people of the society by providing them shelter, food, education and basic amenities of life during the conditions of emergency. The purpose of the American Red Cross is to lend a helping hand as life support to the destitute and people affected because of disasters. The disasters may be natural as well as man-made. American Red Cross serves the noble cause of supporting the section of the society who are helpless and are in need of basic amenities for existence. Facts and rationale: the event that created negative publicity The American Red Cross elected its seventh CEO, Gail. J. McGovern amidst scandals involving their former CEO in 2007. Post-election of the seventh president, the American Red Cross lay off around one thousand employe es from its operational work force. The job cuts imposed by the senior management was brought about in order to restore a balance in the financial condition of the non-profit organization in a situation of crunch in the fund raising activities. The squeeze in the donation receipt in the denominations of the dollar as sources of funds for the organization led to the job cuts of around one thousand workers. ... The public relation between the organization and the society is extremely important for carrying out their welfare activities. Thus negative publicity due to this event laid to the public relations crisis. Goals of campaign: rationale behind choosing these goals The goals of the campaign are to reduce the caused damages due to the occurrence of public relations crisis. The specific goals include sustaining the public image of the organization that has developed over the years, maintain the confidence level of the public on the operations of the organization and also maintain a continuous flow of donations to the organization as a major source of fund for its operations. The reason behind choosing these goals is to maintain a healthy public relation with the society which is the key to effective operations of the organization. The organization provides relief, shelter, food, education and other basic amenities of life to the helpless people of the society and to the victims of disaste rs. These are funded majorly from the donations of the public. The organization conducts fund raising campaign in order to raise money from the people. Thus, healthy public relations are required to be maintained by the organization with the people of the society. In order to restrict the damage due to the situation of public relations crisis from the job cuts imposed, these goals have been chosen as a part of the damage control campaign. Steps to achieve the goals The steps to be taken in order to achieve the goals are to be designed in a calculated manner. A crisis communication plan needs to be set up by the organization. As a part of the crisis communication plan, the content of communication with the public needs to be prepared

Discuss, with relevant examples, the different levels of income and Essay

Discuss, with relevant examples, the different levels of income and expenditure that a typical UK individual is likely to ex - Essay Example Its quality of education is high and the literacy levels are among the highest in the world. Its learning institutions, especially the universities, rank highly in global ratings. The income levels in the United Kingdom are above the global average (Cordner, Das, and Cordner, 2010, p. 76). A typical UK citizen is thus destined to experience many levels of income and expenditures due to the nation’s diverse nature. Income The average household net-adjusted disposable income on the global scale is $22,387 per year. United Kingdom’s average citizen outdoes this and has an average annual income of $26,552. This is according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and development (OECD) survey carried out in 2010. The UK also has an average household wealth of $59,923 according to the OECD survey. This also is above the average household wealth of $36,238 for OECD members. The debt level though was $73,039 in 2010 according to a national financial education charity cal led Credit Action. This includes all debts mortgage and credit card debt. Also, the OECD estimates that the income for the top 20 per cent of earners is $55,138 per year. This greatly contrasts with the bottom 20 per percent of earners who earn $9,556 annually. The income bracket age with the highest earnings is from thirty five to forty nine years. The lowest earning age bracket is from fifteen to nineteen years (Clark, 2007, p. 88). The professional and managerial jobs earn the highest incomes. In contrast, elementary jobs earn the least incomes across the board. Of the total working population, 7 per cent have contracts lasting six months or less. 75 per cent of the men and 65 per cent of the women have jobs in this diverse economy. With more than 70 per cent of the working age bracket employed, this is a fairly good condition compared to other nations. It means that few people are below the poverty line and the living conditions are quite luxurious. Although there exists a big g ap between the high and low income earners, access to basic needs is almost assured for all levels of income. This has ensured a relatively stable economy. Expenditure Taxation Since all governments the world over depend on taxation in funding public projects to avail social amenities to their citizens, great interest is generated by this subject (Black, 2010, p. 89). The United Kingdom, being no exception, has an elaborate taxation scheme to see to the availability of public goods among them roads, hospitals and educational facilities. The typical UK citizen has a number of taxes they pay during their lifetime. A few of the taxes are personal taxes, business taxes and sales taxes. All these taxes serve the sole purpose of contributing to the national basket. Personal taxes, among them income tax, council and inheritance taxes, are directly levied to each citizen. Income taxes to a typical United Kingdom citizen include taxes levied on salaries, bonuses, commissions and overseas all owances. The basic income rate, covering incomes from 0.00 British pounds to 35,000 British pounds, charged 20 per cent income tax (Becker, 2009, p. 45). The next higher tax bracket, covering incomes from 35,001 British pounds to 150,000 British pound

Operations Management Principles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Operations Management Principles - Essay Example This essay explores the old Economic Order Quantities. I think it is an issue because old data about EOQs do not reflect the current state of affairs. The Economic Order Quantity model (EOQ) is a mathematical model for deriving the optimal purchase quantity. The EOQ model seeks to minimize total carrying and ordering costs by balancing purchase costs, ordering costs, carrying costs and stockout costs. In order to compute the economic order quantity, the supervisor needs the following information: forecasted demand during a period, cost of placing the order, that value of the purchase price, and the carrying cost for maintaining the total inventory. The fourth problem is the impossibility to engage trained or trainable temporary workers. I think it is associated with a lack of process planning and therefore should be solved in connection with it. I think that the plan must consist of strategic decisions that are made typically over a longer time horizon. These are closely linked to th e corporate strategy and guide supply chain policies from a design perspective. (Ganeshan & Harrison, 1995) The strategy includes the development of a management information system that will store the data about the company’s activity and help to make operational decisions. Management information systems (MIS) are information systems, typically computer-based, that are used within an organization. A management information system may be defined as "a system that collects and processes data (information) and provides it to managers at all levels that use it for decision making, planning, program implementation, and control." An information system is comprised of all the components that collect, manipulate, and disseminate data or information. It usually includes hardware, software, people, communications systems such as telephone lines, and the data itself. The activities involved include inputting data, processing of data into information, storage of data and information, and the production of outputs such as management reports. (Management information system from Wikipedia, 2006) A standard is any guideline established as the basis for measurement. It is a precise, explicit statement of expected results from a product, service, machine, individual, or organizational unit. It is usually expressed numerically and is set for quality, quantity, and time. Tolerance is a permissible deviation from the standard. (Allen, 1998) A set of controls should be developed. Time controls relate to deadlines and time constraints. Material controls relate to inventory and material-yield controls. Equipment controls are built into the machinery, imposed on the operator to protect the equipment or the process. Cost controls help ensure cost standards are met. Employee performance controls focus on the actions and behaviors of individuals and groups of employees. Examples include absences, tardiness, accidents, quality, and quantity of work. Budgets control cost or expense r elated standards. Financial controls facilitate achieving the organization's profit motive. One method of financial controls budgets.

Debate notes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Debate notes - Essay Example Under a business oriented pay-for-play system in which performance is not only expected, but required for payment, such practices would undoubtedly cease. Student-athletes would also be forced to deal with the overwhelming business concerns that come with a professional system. Student-athletes may be placed in a bargaining situation that they could not possibly be expected to fully comprehend. Student-athletes would be forced to employ agents, accountants, and attorneys for assistance.2 Tax Issues. Problems that universities have avoided by preserving amateurism would begin to haunt them under pay-for-play. As one commentator has noted, a costly problem universities would face under pay-for-play would be the loss of their tax exempt status for income derived from athletics.3 Currently, universities pay no federal tax on tuition or other payments attributable to educational activities.4 Like other tax-exempt institutions, universities are taxed only on "unrelated business taxable income."5Unrelated business taxable income is income from a trade or business that is regularly carried on, but is not "substantially related" to the institution's primary purpose.6 The primary purpose of a university is education.7 Currently, college athletics are considered to be substantially related to education. ... mpensated for playing, the IRS most likely could no longer support the idea that athletics are rationally related to education and would tax the earnings derived from such events. This loss of profits due to taxation would significantly lower college revenues and would likely result in less popular sports being discontinued due to lack of funding, as well as the possibility of limiting funds for athlete services such as scholarships, financial aid, and tutoring. Athletes as Employees: Labor Law Issue. A pay-for-play system could also open a Pandora's box for employment claims, including salaries, the right to form unions, and workers' compensation benefits.8 Due to the nature of athletics and the potential for injury, the addition of workers' compensation claims would be especially costly. Student-athletes' entitlement to workers' compensation is generally held to rest upon whether they are "employees" under the applicable workers' compensation law.9 Under the NCAA's current system most courts have held that universities are not liable for injuries suffered by student-athletes under workers' compensation laws10. In support of these holdings the courts have repeatedly pointed to the concept of amateurism.11 These courts reason that because student-athletes are non-compensated amateurs they are not employees and thus are not entitled to workers' compensation.12 If the amateurism policy is abandoned and a pay-for-play system adopted, courts cou ld no longer deny student-athletes workers' compensation benefits because they would be employees. A second justification for paying student-athletes is that they are university employees13. This idea directly conflicts with established principles of amateurism. Consequently, courts are reluctant to alter the dynamics of collegiate

LL.M. Transnational Commercial law- Aspects of Insurance Essay

LL.M. Transnational Commercial law- Aspects of Insurance - Essay Example He said; Lord Mustill recently reviewed the history of good faith and the need to ensure full disclosure in the case of Pan Atlantic Insurance Co v Pine Top Insurance Co4, where he pointed out that the formulation of insurance policy is largely dependent upon information furnished before the execution of the contract, therefore the inequality of information may be addressed only by full disclosure of all relevant information. In Australia, Section 21 of the Insurance Contracts Act of 1984 (Cth) clearly lays out the scope of duty of a party that is purchasing insurance to disclose all the information that may be relevant to an insurer. This would include all information that is necessary for the insurer to make an objective assessment of the situation in order to decide whether or not it is prepared to accept the risk that is involved. In the recent case of McCabe v Royal and Sun Alliance Life Assurance Australia Ltd5 1, Mrs McCabe applied for insurance, but her condition was diagnosed only after she had sent in her preliminary application. But although Ms McCabe was hospitalized subsequently, she did not submit her doctor’s report to the insurance Company not disclose details of her illness and hospitalization. In this case, the Court held that the insurance Company was entitled to avoid the policy because Mrs McCabe had not fully disclosed all the relevant information about her health which was v ital to the insurer in making a determination about insuring her life. While a person seeking insurance is entitled to expect that an insurance Company will conduct its own independent analysis in making an assessment about the risk, the person seeking insurance also has a duty to provide all relevant information and a failure to do so would provide grounds for avoidance of the policy. The nature of non disclosure is also

Los Angeles Urbanism and Urban Landscape Essay Example for Free

Los Angeles Urbanism and Urban Landscape Essay Development and population movements begin and end in the city centers. It is in the city centers that various activities and concentrations of high degrees of social and economic communications and interactions converge. In fact, the city center is often a city’s historical core, susceptible to a series of major transformations in the process development. This space in the city symbolizes the dynamic and intensive congregation of diverse people interacting to satisfy varying needs and demands. However, the city center exists as an integral part of a broader urban system, which provides a context in understanding the characteristics and changes in the city center. At the same time the city center, as the hub of new ideas, influence developments in the broader urban system. Through the processes and systems of the city center, it can significantly influence urban structures and development perspectives. The transformation of a city starts and builds momentum in its city center because it is at the core of the city that changes often emerge to spread throughout the city’s periphery. Studying the urbanism and urban landscape of cities would reflect the manner and extent that city centers influenced the development of the cities of today. Los Angeles is a non-conventional city because it has more than one city center. This makes the exploration of the impact of city centers on the development of a city of significant interest. While a city center highly influences the urban landscape of a city, the existence of a number of city centers would mean greater diverse intersecting influences on the city’s urban landscape. The discussion focuses on the urbanism of Los Angeles as expressed through the periods of change in its urban landscape, based on the interrelationships of history, people, economy, and politics; and expressed through development, planning and structures, culminating into how Los Angeles looks and feels today. Periods of Urbanism Changes in the Urban Landscape of Los Angeles Los Angeles, as it is today, is the result of a series of historical, socio-economic and political developments expressed through structures as artifacts of the resulting urban landscape. There are five distinct periods in the urbanization of Los Angeles. The distinguishing factors of these periods are the key changes in the patterns of social life and key developments in the structural landscape of the city centers and the city itself. Development Period (1870-1900) The pattern of growth of Los Angeles was not from the creation and spread of a city center but through the simultaneous developments of different ranch communities. After California became an American state and Los Angeles incorporated as a city in 1850, massive migration occurred from the Midwest to make Los Angeles a majority Anglo territory, albeit there were Mexicans, American Indians, and even Chinese already forming part of the multicultural population . Economic activity revolved around the ranches that sprouted in three areas defined by the geographic landscape, which are beach areas, foothills and mountain ranges, and the plains . These geographic landscapes determined the varying development of these areas since the beach areas meant reliance on fishing and other water-based industries, the rich plains meant strong agricultural outputs, and the mountain ranges supported cattle herding, logging, and mining. The rise and fall of these economic bases depending on factors such as weather, socio-cultural issues, economic conditions, and political situations determined the direction and pace of development of these areas on which the city centers of Los Angeles formed. Economic opportunities in Los Angeles led to the massive migration of Chinese, Japanese and Mexican laborers into the city. The population grew from 20,000 in 1870 to 230,000 in just a decade. The great number of Chinese immigrants led to the establishment of China Towns contiguous the major ranches, which became the economic centers. The interaction of different cultures due to close proximity resulted in racial conflicts as exemplified by the massacre of twenty Chinese individuals in 1871. Competition for work and threat of encroachment into an urban space that is becoming smaller through the influx of people caused racial issues. There was need for development to keep up and accommodate the needs of the growing population. The surge in urbanization of these areas commenced during the 1880s and continued for two decades when the federal government subsidized the development of the ports in Los Angeles, railroads, roads, aqueducts and reservoirs, and other key facilities such as schools and hospitals. Prior to and during these periods, the federal government with the help of city officials also continued surveying lands and allocated these for public and private use. The allocation of land to the private sector established close public-private partnership that directed the areas for development and provided the local support for the various infrastructure projects that would serve both the private and public sector. The federal government then played an important role in spurring the urban development of Los Angeles. During these two decades, the structural landscape of Los Angeles involved the establishment of households around the key facilities such as roads and railroad or along the waterways. There were buildings for school and hospitals. Business was also thriving due to economic growth resulting to the establishment of structures for commerce and leisure. The emerging communities were also organized according to racial background as with the China Town for the Chinese and the Latino communities for the Mexicans. However, these structural changes were happening at the different city centers independently and these city centers do not necessarily have close ties. As such, this period expressed fragmentation. Progressive Era Roaring Twenties (1900-1920s) The end of the period of development came about in the mid-1890s due to the economic depression. This led to the realization that relying primarily on agriculture and real estate development as the major economic activities was not sufficient to support continuous urban development. Promoters or prospectors of Los Angeles from the government and the private sector looked at industrialization, with manufacturing as the more sustainable economic base. It was during the 1920s that Los Angeles experienced growth from its manufacturing sector . During this time, the petroleum industry experienced major breakthroughs in search of black gold. Rise in production led to the growth of petroleum processing firms or refineries. The petroleum industry financed motion pictures leading to the establishment of Los Angeles as the leader in the production of movies. Hollywood developed as early as 1910 but it was during the 1920s that motion production rapidly increased and eighty percent of motion pictures shown worldwide came from Hollywood . In addition to petroleum production, other manufacturing industries also emerged in Los Angeles. The aircraft manufacturing industry developed through the pioneering efforts of the Lockheed brothers and Donald Douglas. Expansions of the ports in Long Beach and San Pedro also supported the growth in commerce and trade with products coming in and going out of Los Angeles. These economic developments paved the way for further changes in the urban landscape of Los Angeles. The renewed economic growth led to the further migration of Mexican laborers into Los Angeles together with Chinese and Japanese immigrants. The massive flow of workers made Mexicans the largest non-Anglo group in Los Angeles. The larger population of non-Anglo groups in Los Angeles made the city more culturally and racially diverse than other cities in other regions of America. At this time, the population reached 1. 24 million . Diverse cultural influences affected the development planning and structures of Los Angeles. The factor that truly incorporated Los Angeles was the boom in automobile use , with massive consumption supported by the petroleum and other industries. During the 1920s, Los Angeles was the top city in terms of car ownership and registration. The development of roads interlinked the various city centers within Los Angeles, which at this time already numbered forty. The new city centers were formerly small communities that developed from the discovery of petroleum reserves. Concurrent, with the integration of Los Angeles as a city, its massive thirty-two story city hall was erected in 1928. It symbolized the integration of the different city centers as key contributors to the development of Los Angeles. Urban planning revolved around the city hall as the hub. Nevertheless, the different city centers continued to pursue different paths of development expressing the persistence of fragmentation . Concurrently, Los Angeles started to experience problems in traffic and parking. The influx of people also created the problem of urban space resulting to the expansion of land development outward. This led to the development of communities in San Fernando Valley towards the north and lands near San Pedro port towards the south. In the city centers, development looked upwards to create space leading to the construction of taller buildings for residential and business purposes. Emerging social problems also spurred the rise in leftist politics that challenged the current direction of development. The challenges were intensified by the onset of the Great Depression in 1929. Period of Renewed Metropolitan Development (1930s-1950s) The developments during this period were in response to the Great Depression as well as the accumulating problems experienced by Los Angeles, particularly traffic and parking with more cars bought and population congestion with massive influx of people even during the economic downturn, although at a lower rate than during the roaring twenties. The solution to the Great Depression was to boost further industrialization via incentives for business growth. During the 1930s, the local government set out to develop and control its own electric and water companies. The price of electricity was relatively lower when compared to other major cities. The development of the city’s own water supply also eased the difficulties experienced by the labor force, resulting to a less leftist relationship with companies. These incentives led to the establishment of other industries such as rubber and tire manufacturing and iron and steel production in the 1940s, also partly in response to the demands of the Second World War. The aviation industry also experienced further growth. Many manufacturing plants were built in the city centers and fringes of Los Angeles as 479 new manufacturing plants were added to the already one thousand existing ones. The rise in new industries alleviated the declining socio-economic conditions of the growing population of workers. The solution to population congestion in the city centers was to build outwards and upwards. During the 1930s, there remained enough land space, comprising fifty percent of surveyed jurisdiction of Los Angeles but these lands were in the fringes and undeveloped. Residential areas were built in the eastern and southern areas of Los Angeles primarily to cater to the working class. Communities such as Beldevere, Maywood and South Gate emerged. The houses were usually one to two stories with large lawns and steep inclines relative to road built on mountainous areas. In the city centers, residential buildings, which are modest in height, also emerged; but scattered across different areas unlike the rows of apartment building that emerged in other major cities. These parallel developments led to different directions of development in downtown Los Angeles and the primarily residential suburbs. The solution to traffic and parking was initially the regulation of parking areas and time but this did not alleviate the problem . The private sector was left to provide solutions to this problem, which resulted in scattered and piecemeal responses from the business sector. Surface parking lots emerged by demolishing small and old buildings. Then multi-story parking lots also emerged. Basement parking garage of department stores accessible directly through the elevators also formed part of the solution. More and more, the perks of buildings and competitiveness of establishments were in response to the demand for parking, particularly the contiguous location to parking amenities. In the case of department stores, hotels and other business establishments, there were frequent movements to new locations, further away from downtown, in response to the traffic and parking problems since customers prefer stores close or with parking spaces. As such, the business and commercial center stretched to cover a wide area unlike the closely packed business and commercial center in other cities. Restructuring Era (1960s-1990s) Economic growth in the manufacturing sector continued in the 1960s up to the late 1980s. The growth in manufacturing was due to the inflow of military or security related contracts due to the Cold War. Aviation, tire manufacturing, and car production industries remained key industries. In addition, new industries, particularly garments manufacturing also emerged with the flow of overseas, mainly Asian capital into Los Angeles. The ports of Los Angeles also comprised a convenient incentive for merchants or traders. In comparison, while the economies of Chicago and New York de-industrialized in the 1970s, the economy of Los Angeles continued to grow. The economic growth led to the further growth in population, which now reached 8. 5 million in the 1980s. However, towards the end of the 1980s, manufacturing slowed down due to the withdrawal of security-related contracts with the end of the Cold War. Federal spending on security decreased or shifted to other priorities. This led to the significant rise in unemployment. In 1992, the extent of the problem found expression in the riots of laborers, since the fragmentation of manufacturing opportunities also weakened unionization. Nevertheless, the services sector providing white-collar jobs remained strong. This led to the socio-economic divide with racial underpinnings. Most of the laborers were Mexicans, Asians and Blacks while most of the white-collar workers were Whites. The urbanization of Los Angeles involved two aspects, one is continued economic growth and the other is fragmentation of socio-economic class. This led to the restructuring of the city. The rise in the services sector and the development of the technology-based industries led to a different path in urban landscape. More architectural infrastructures emerged displaying advancements in both art and technology while the restoration of old architectural works expressed the developments in urbanization of Los Angeles . However, fragmentation was apparent in the development that centered only on certain areas such as the business and commercial centers while the residential areas surrounding these developed areas, which minority groups primarily populate, remained unchanged and continued to deteriorate. In the suburban areas, two streams of development emerged. On one hand, the established residential communities retained the historical look of low buildings with wide lawns and the white picket fences. On the other hand, newly established communities expressed the new trends in artistic and architectural designs to express a diverse visualization of structures captured in the term edge city . Modern Period (2000-Present) The modern Los Angeles is a diverse and fragmented metropolis. While the urban landscape has changed, diversity and fragmentation remained the static characteristics of Los Angeles. Diversity finds expression from the fusion of different cultures starker in the city than in other major cities. The interaction between cultures affects the psyche of urban society and finds reflection in the fragmentation of its urban landscape. In addition, the diversification of economic base of Los Angeles from agriculture to manufacturing to services has an impact on the diversification of the activities and movements of people reflected in structures. Even fragmentation is diverse and multi-tiered. One reflection of fragmentation is the layering of the population of Los Angeles based on socio-economic class, which continues to widen. Another reflection of fragmentation is the classification of Los Angeles into four distinct ecologies, each representing different social networks and diverse infrastructures. The first ecology is surfurbia, which refers to the beach areas expressing the more laidback aspect of Los Angeles. The beaches developed into high-end communities of private residences and exclusive resorts as well as open beaches linked to hotels, restaurants, shopping malls, and other commercial shops catering to both locals and tourists. The second ecology is the foothills, primarily consisting of residential areas reflecting the fragmentation into traditional and modern structures. On one hand, the older communities in the foothills reflected the traditional monotony of similar looking houses. On the other hand, the new communities reflected variances in architectural design. The third ecology is the plains of id, comprised of residential areas also reflecting the fragmentation between the old and the new, patches of agricultural land, and some remnants of the manufacturing factories. The fourth ecology is the autopia characterized by the mechanized features of the city including its interconnected roads and freeways. However, fragmentation is not only in terms of ecological space but also of the perspectives of the residents of Los Angeles, explained through the concept of social fragmentation and the widening cultural gap. In addition, the common experience of fragmentation and changes in economic structure created networked co-dependence among these four ecosystems with employment centered in the sufurbia, plains and autopia but expansion in real estate concentrated in the plains and foothills. The intersection of people between these ecologies increased. As such, the building of infrastructures no longer sufficed as catalysts of development because of the need to consider the impact on other ecologies and the need to address the deeper issues of socio-economic fragmentation and cultural gap. The focus of urban planning started to move from decentralization dependent on the private sector to centralization, under the management of the local government. Conclusion The urbanism of Los Angeles shows the manner that four city centers evolved into distinct ecologies to create the diversification and fragmentation of Los Angeles. These city centers also dramatically transformed the urban landscape of Los Angeles in a manner that maintained diversity and fragmentation. The moving force of these city centers are the changing activities and dynamics of people in response to natural and manmade challenges. However, Los Angeles never ceased to change and it continues to experience rapid change, particularly moving towards the growing co-dependence between the city centers due to socio-cultural, economic, political and environmental challenges requiring greater centralization in urban planning. With this current trend, Los Angeles would experience another period of urban renewal and restructuring in the future. Bibliography Abu-Lughod, Janet. New York, Chicago, Los Angeles: Americas Global Cities. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. Banham, Reyner. Los Angeles: The Architecture of Four Ecologies. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2009. Fogelson, Robert and Robert Fishman. The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles, 1859-1930. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1993. Garreau, Joel. Edge City: Life on the New Frontier. New York: Random House, Inc. , 1992. Gottlieb, Robert, Mark Vallianatos, Regina Freer and Peter Dreier. The Next Los Angeles: The Struggle for a Livable City. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2005. Longstreth, Richard. City Center to Regional Mall: Architecture, the Automobile, and Retailing in Los Angeles, 1920-1950. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1997. Mitkovic, Petar and Milena Dinic. â€Å"City Center Organization and its Influence on the City Structure. † Architecture and Civil Engineering 3(2004): 41-56. Scott, Allen. â€Å"Resurgent Metropolis: Economy, Society and Urbanization in an Interconnected World. † International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 32(2008):548-564. Scott, Allen and Edward Soja. The City: Los Angeles and Urban Theory at the End of the Twentieth Century. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1998. Sitton, Tom and William Deverell. Metropolis in the Making: Los Angeles in the 1920s. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2001. Varnelis, Kazys. The Infrastructural City: Networked Ecologies in Los Angeles. New York: Actar, 2008.

Factors Which Lead to Stress in the Workplace

Factors Which Lead to Stress in the Workplace Phones 4 you Case Study Chapter One: Introduction Phones 4u is a large independent mobile phone retailer in the UK. Since opening in 1996, it expanded to 400 stores throughout the United Kingdom. Head office is based in Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire and was until recently part of the The Caudwell Group formed by John Caudwell. In September 2006 the group was sold and Phones 4u is now owned by Providence Equity Partners (Minter, 2003, 18) Stress is the condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy, whether real or not, between the demands of a situation and the resources of the persons biological, psychological or social systems. In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. Stressful stimuli can be mental, physiological, anatomical or physical reactions. Lost car keys, tardiness, family death, and loss of job, pressure, frustration, and social changes-these are different types of stress, the process by which one appraises and copes with environmental threats and challenges. The events of daily life flow through a psychological filter that helps a person the react in certain ways. Some stress early in life is conducive to later emotional and physical growth. But stresses, or conflicts, can also threaten a persons life as well and health (Amatea, 1991, 48). Behavioral psychologists have determined there is a correlation between stress and the declination on ones behavior. One may increase his usage of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs to escape his stressful state. Other problems include arguing with friends, neglecting appearance, crying easily, difficulty concentrating, and withdrawing from family and friends. In extreme cases, stress can cause insanity. Emotional changes are also a common effect of stress. Symptoms include anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, loneliness, and rejection. Changes in emotional state may lead to psychological disorders or even death, if not treated. Suicide is among the leading outcomes of stress-related depression (aspinwall, 1992, 48). Not only does stress effect ones emotional and behavioral states, buy it also plays a large role in ones physical state. Symptoms of stress include, but are not limited to, allergies, back pain, respiratory infections, fatigue, headaches, muscle tension, sleeping problems, and dizziness. British scientist Hans Selye made a basic point of stress. It states that although the human body comes designed to cope with temporary stress, prolonged stress can produce physical deterioration. MRI brain scans of people who have experienced a prolonged amount of stress often show the results of a shrunken hippocampus, the inner brain structure vital to laying down explicit memories. Stress can put people at risk for one of todays four leading causes of serious illness and death: heart disease, cancer, stroke, and chronic lung disease. Such findings were proven true by studies done by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman in 1956. Psychophysiological illnesses are stress-related. They are i llnesses, such as high blood pressure, that are caused by high levels of stress. Immune responses may also be effected by stress. They can either speed up or slow down causing a variety of illnesses such as lupus or multiple sclerosis. Stress does not make one sick, but it does restrain ones immune functioning, making him more vulnerable to foreign invaders (Bandura, 1986, 58). Stress in unavoidable. If one can not eliminate stress by changing or ignoring a situation, one must learn to manage it by confronting or escaping the problem. Stress management may include aerobic exercise, relaxation, and social support. Without knowledge of stress and ways to manage it, people are more susceptible of disease and psychological disorders. There are various sources of stress. The very definition of stress is: A mentally or emotionally disruptive or upsetting condition occurring in response to adverse external influences and capable of affecting physical health, usually characterized by increased heart rate, a rise in blood pressure, muscular tension, irritability, and depression. A stimulus or circumstance causing such a condition. In todays world of competition and success, the limits of our threshold are being pushed to succeed. Success is the driving force behind many people pushing their bodies to the limits. A human body needs a delicate balance between work, and relaxation. When this equilibrium is not maintained, problems occur, which might have repercussions later. These repercussions take the forms of Burnouts, break-downs, and sometimes extreme cases of heart attacks. In most cases of the systems breaking down, there are methods of control and mechanisms of improvement of the situation. Stress can be handled very effectively in todays world. Healthy and wholesome living is the new day mantra for better work efficiencies. What causes stress? There are various triggers to stress. Work, personal life and external factors (Banyard, 1993, 45). Work: the pressures of work are one of the greatest factors contributing to the high stress levels today. Long working hours, constant pressures of deadlines, and the inevitable fear of job security pushes people to work very hard. Personal Life: outside the work place, people are always subject to constant pressures from family, friends, and well wishers. Handling these pressures in the most effective way is the tact of the new manager. Family life can cause stress, especially if there is some friction between partners, the ill heath or sudden death of a partner can cause great levels of stress. External factors: personal finances, world events and other non classifiable events also add to stress. Time management or lack of thereof is another cause of external factors of stress. How does one handle stress? There are several ways of fighting stress in ones life. This essay will briefly attempt to touch base with some important methods which can be imbibed in handling stress. 1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Time Management: Time management is one of the greatest methods of combating stress especially in the workplace. Effective time management helps us prioritizing, planning, allocating and executing effective schedules in order to maximize our most valuable resource, time. Once a person has been able to handle time effectively, he or she would be able to handle many tasks which have been allocated (Baruch, 1987, 59). 2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Health: stress has a great impact on the personal health of the individual. Ageing is speeded up and white hair apparently comes aplenty. Living a healthy life helps in handling stress better. A regular routine, the offshoot of effective time management, allows us time to regularly exercise. Exercise, as many say release endorphins, these help combat stress and depression, a stress induced side effect. Healthy foods, such as greens, and maintaining a balanced diet are some other ways, which when coupled with exercise help us maintain a healthy body. 3)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Non Conventional Methods: going back to the basics is a term that is used very regularly today. When one says going back to the basics, it includes going back to the past. Yoga, pranayama and other methods of controlling the mind, body and soul, have existed in our country for a very long time. This is fast gaining popularity as methods of combating stress. Yoga has immense powers to help us maintain our minds and body in shape. From the above, we can see one of the greatest factors of handling stress is to maintain a healthy mind, body and soul. Prevention is better than cure, preventing stress by having a healthy life style and a healthy mind, is a plus point which has no substitute in todays world. However there is no effective way of handling self induced stress. Calming the mind and regulated breathing can ease the stress, but it will be rendered ineffective if the person is not willing to practice it in the positive way (Bem, 1981, 49). Stress is one of the greatest hindrances to efficient productivity in todays workplace. Production efficiency is the key word today and this does face a serious threat with stress. Combating stress on a war footing is the need of the hour, and some of the above points will assist in effective stress management through a healthy mind , body and soul. Stress is a combination of responses in the body. Stress can be short-term (acute) or chronic. Acute stress is the fight or flight response. If a car is careening toward you at a high rate of speed, you will (or should!) experience acute stress. It is when you experience so many common stressors, such as heavy traffic, noise, money worries, illnesses, relationship problems, rising crime rates, or work frustrations, that stress takes a chronic form. In the short term, stress can be vital. Over time, it turns destructive . How destructive can stress be on your body? Research has shown that prolonged stress can produce actual tissue changes and organ dysfunction. With the new MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) techniques, scientists are able to prove visibly that chronic stress can shrink an area in the brain called the hypothalamus. Read More On This They have found that the brains of war veterans, as well as women who have been victims of childhood sexual abuse, have a marked reduction in the size of their hypothalamus (Betz, 1987, 29). Stress also affects your brain by releasing powerful chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (also called adrenaline). The hypothalamic/pituitary-adrenal portion of your brain releases steroid hormones, including the primary stress hormone, cortisol. Cortisol affects systems throughout your body, including an increased heart rate. Your heart, lungs, and circulatory system are influenced by the increased heart rate. Blood flow may increase 300 to 400 percent. Blood pressure increases and breathing becomes rapid. Your mouth and throat may become dry. Skin may become cool and clammy because blood flow is diverted away so it can support the heart and muscle tissues. Even digestive activity shuts down. Once again, occasional stress is normal. Once youve handled the situation, the stress goes away and you heal from the episode. But, if stressors accumulate over time, eventually the body becomes inefficient at handling even the least amount of stress. The brain, heart, lungs, vessels, and muscles become so chronically over or under activated that they become damaged. It is this sort of stress which may trigger or worsen heart disease, strokes, susceptibility to infection, sleep disturbances, sexual and reproductive dysfunction, memory and learning dysfunction, digestive problems, weight problems, diabetes, pain, and skin disorders. Extensive multidisciplinary studies have presented unequivocal evidence that our psychological responses to stress and our perceptions of stress to a considerable extent affect our susceptibility to disease. In active relationship, the immune, neuroendocrine, and nervous systems respond to the brain and psyche. Virtually all illnesses, from the flu to cancer, are influenced for good or bad by our thoughts and feelings. R. Lloyd, 1990 Healing Brain: A Scientific Reader (Betz, 1987, 48) Statement of the Research Problem How do the employees cope with stress in the workplace to achieve a more balanced lifestyle at Phones 4 you ? Stress is a part of everybodys life. Depending on the level of stress, it can control our lives, especially in the workplace. We begin to spend several long hours at work, and thus have less time for other things. Stressed employees may be unhappy and thus produce nominally. Stress can deteriorate social and family relationships and eventually burn you out; ultimately it can take toll on your health. Organizations need to recognize stress as a problem and decide whether or not to act upon it. Background Information This question needs to be answered because stress is a problem that Phones 4 you must deal with; stress can cause poor work performance and lower employee morale. These factors can increase employee turnover rate and lessen quality of life. We all must deal with stress; question is how we handle and control it. With downsizing the buzz word in the modern corporate world, companies have become mean and lean. Employees are compelled to be more efficient Phones 4 you; they find themselves taking on the work of what used to be two. The result is longer hours, less time for outside activities, and consequently increased stress. According to Business Week, the typical British works 47 hours a week, and if current trends continue, in 20 years the average person would be on the job 60 hours a week. Another factor that increases stress is technological advancements. With all the new technology one is always connected to work and accessible 24 hours a day 7 days a week. According to Business Week, it is now possible, and thus increasingly expected, for employees to be accessible and productive any hour, any day (Bollen, 1993, 18). At a workplace, one observes several sales people working long hours, claiming it is due to under staffing. Employees reach a point of diminishing returns. The more hours they work, the less productive they are. This stressful condition causes the quality of work to dwindle. Consequently, clients recognize this, and eventually they terminate the business relationship. Soon the company loses, as it is built on these clients (Moos, 1989, 58). Statement of the Objectives This research expects to discuss factors which lead to stress in the workplace at Phones 4 you. Are individuals stressed in the workplace at Phones 4 you? What causes stress in the workplace Phones 4 you? Who is mostly stressed: men or women? Are individuals being exposed to stress management techniques? Should employers implement stress management techniques? as a future manager, I would like to be able to determine if stress is a problem for employees; if so, implement a strategy to curtail stress in the workplace. By recognizing stress in the workplace, employers can act appropriately to reduce stress. The outcome can benefit social and family relationships, as well as preserve ones health and make us more productive in our organizations (Moos, 1982, 25). Scope The research project will comprise of a sample size of 30 individuals, randomly selected from general business areas. The study will analyze stress factors in the U.K workforce and its impact on the British organization. Effective stress management techniques will then be presented, which will allow individuals or organizations to implement. Secondary information from various sources will be utilized to explore effective methods of coping with stress. The conclusions and recommendations I will draw will be applicable to any British organization with stress as a problem. Although this study will generalize from the small population, it can be used as a starting point to recognizing the problem, as each organization can require a different approach (Parkes, 1986, 36). Limitations The sources utilized in the research will be extracted from current articles (2006-present) from online services, the Internet, and public libraries. A survey will be given to individuals of randomly chosen organizations and will not target any specific company or industry. Due to time constraints, the population will be limited to 30 individuals. The research will explore factors causing stress in the workplace and its impact on organizations. Effective methods of coping with stress will be given, but limited to ones examined in the secondary resources (Portello, 1996, 548). Research Procedures The project will focus on stress factors in the workplace and effective methods to balance a healthy lifestyle. The sample group will consist of 30 individuals randomly selected from general business areas. The survey will be conducted during lunch periods when several employees leave and return to the workplace. The questionnaire will attempt to see if the sample individuals believe stress is a problem and what can be done to resolve it. The questionnaire will be delivered in person and each individual will fill out the survey at that point. Since the survey will be conducted in a general public area, no authorization is needed to administer. Once I receive all the surveys, I will quantify the data into an Excel spreadsheet. I will report the data mostly in percentages (e.g. 70percent of the individuals acknowledge that stress is a problem in the workplace). The data will be utilized to see if stress is a factor impacting the British workforce. Stress management techniques will be presented where appropriate (Browne, 1993, 578). Chapter Two: Literature Review Stress is an adaptive response. It is the bodys reaction to an event that is seen as emotionally disturbing, disquieting, or threatening. When we perceive such an event, we experience what stress researchers call the fight or flight response. To prepare for fighting or fleeing, the body increases its heart rate and blood pressure; more blood is then sent to your heart and muscles, and your respiration rate increases (Carmines, 1981, 48). Stress is both positive and negative. Good stress is a balance of arousal and relaxation that helps you concentrate, focus, and achieve what you want. Bad stress is constant stress and constant arousal that may lead to high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and worse. The body does not distinguish between negative and positive stress. The same physiological responses can take place whether you are happy or sad about a given situation. When extending to the workplace, stress may lead to poor work performance and end up costing an organizations several thousands of dollars. The organization loses on salary because they are not receiving satisfactory production and if the employee becomes ill, health and workers compensation rates can soar . The organization must decide whether or no to implement a stress management program, since there are several external stressors that can overtake an individual. Internal stressors, within organizations include technology and corporate downsizing which leads to longer hours and job uncertainty. If one does not know how to manage stress, it can get out of control ) (Rock, 1997, 4). Analyzing Stress on Individuals In a 1995 survey of 1,705 respondents it is analyzed that stress rises with level of education and job level and is higher than average for women (Robinson, 1996, 88). Fifty-eight percent of the women respondents possess moderate to a lot of stress in the workplace compared to 53 percent of men. From the divorced individuals, 62 percent are stressed in the workplace compared to married and never married at 57 percent, and 58 percent respectively. The widowed respondents maintain the least stress at 38 percent (Robinson, 1996, 48). College graduate respondents possess more stress at 64 percent than high school graduates at 55 percent. Only 43 percent of the less than high school respondents felt stress in the workplace. Those with more education feel more stress, possibly because their jobs involve greater managerial and financial responsibility (Robinson, 1996, 87). Stress is an epidemic in British life. In nationwide polls, 89 percent of Britishers reported that they often experience high levels of stress, and 59 percent claimed that they feel great stress at least once a week (Hellmich, 1994, 57). A five year study of the British workforce conducted by the Families and Work Institute showed that 30 percent of employees often or very often feel burned out or stressed by their jobs, 27 percent feel emotionally drained from their work, and 42 percent feel used up at the end of the work day (Hellmich, 1994, 4). Balancing work pressures and family responsibilities leaves many workers feeling burned out. Examining the Effects of Downsizing on Stress The downsizing of organizations have caused a stressful environment. Downsizing has created concerns over job security, and has forced employees to take on a larger workload. According to a local union representing U.K. West stated that work still needs to be done, but with fewer people (Scott, 1996, 41). Downsizing creates quantitative and qualitative stress. Quantitative stress pertains to doing the same amount of work with fewer people. Reengineering the organization entails shaping the company to be more efficient with less individuals. These individuals are asked to do a wider variety of work functions they are not trained to do, causing qualitative overload (Scott, 1996, 35). Occupational Stress is the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when there is a poor match between job demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviours (e.g., aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory problems). In turn, these conditions may lead to poor work performance or even injury. Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to compromised health, such as cardiovascular disease (Rosenfield, 1989, 5). Prevalence Stress is a prevalent and costly problem in todays workplace. About one-third of workers report high levels of stress. One-fourth of employees view their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives. Three-fourths of employees believe the worker has more on-the-job stress than a generation ago. Evidence also suggests that stress is the major cause of turnover in organizations (Scheier, 1985, 65). Health and Healthcare Utilization Problems at work are more strongly associated with health complaints than are any other life stressor-more so than even financial problems or family problems. Many studies suggest that psychologically demanding jobs that allow employees little control over the work process increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. On the basis of research by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and many other organizations, it is widely believed that job stress increases the risk for development of back and upper-extremity musculoskeletal disorders. High levels of stress are associated with substantial increases in health service utilization. Workers who report experiencing stress at work also show excessive health care utilization. In a 1998 study of 46,000 workers, health care costs were nearly 50% greater for workers reporting high levels of stress in comparison to low risk workers. The increment rose to nearly 150%, an increase of more than $1,700 per person annually, for workers reporting high levels of both stress and depression. Additionally, periods of disability due to job stress tend to be much longer than disability periods for other occupational injuries and illnesses (Schwartz, 1993, 58). Causes of Occupational Stress Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. According to one school of thought, differences in individual characteristics such as personality and coping style are most important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress-in other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint leads to prevention strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job conditions. Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention str ategy. Personal interview surveys of working conditions, including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in Member States of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Results showed a trend across these periods suggestive of increasing work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting that they worked at high speeds at least one-fourth of their working time was 48%, increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000. Similarly, 50% of workers reported they work against tight deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990, increasing to 56% in 1995 and 60 % in 2000. However, no change was noted in the period 1995–2000 (data not collected in 1990) in the percentage of workers reporting sufficient time to complete tasks. A substantial percentage of Britishers work very long hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures represent a considerable incr ease over the previous three decades, especially for women. According to the Department of Labour, there has been an upward trend in hours worked among employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among working couples, particularly couples with young children (Shaw, 1993, 4). Signs of Occupational Stress Mood and sleep disturbances, upset stomach and headache, and disturbed relationships with family, friend and girl/boy friends are examples of stress-related problems. The effects of job stress on chronic diseases are more difficult to see because chronic diseases take a long time to develop and can be influenced by many factors other than stress. Nonetheless, evidence is rapidly accumulating to suggest that stress plays an important role in several types of chronic health problems-especially cardiovascular disease, musculoskeletal disorders, and psychological disorders (Sherer, 1982, 36). Prevention A combination of organizational change and stress management is often the most useful approach for preventing stress at work. How to Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress Ensure that the workload is in line with workers capabilities and resources. Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and opportunities for workers to use their skills. Clearly define workers roles and responsibilities. Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions affecting their jobs. Improve communications-reduce uncertainty about career development and future employment prospects. Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers. Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job. St. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Company conducted several studies on the effects of stress prevention programs in hospital settings. Program activities included (1) employee and management education on job stress, (2) changes in hospital policies and procedures to reduce organizational sources of stress, and (3) establishment of employee assistance programs. In one study, the frequency of medication errors declined by 50% after prevention activities were implemented in a 700-bed hospital. In a second study, there was a 70% reduction in malpractice claims in 22 hospitals that implemented stress prevention activities. In contrast, there was no reduction in claims in a matched group of 22 hospitals that did not implement stress prevention activities (Smith, 1981, 24). Chapter Three: Research Methodology Design The data reported here are from two separate data sets. In order to cross-validate the model, data from the original study of managerial women were used, and these included data from the first three assessments of a 2-year longitudinal study. In the original article (B. C. Long et al., 1992, 165), a conceptual model of stress and coping was tested and developed that was based on data from the first three assessments (Time 1 to Time 3) of 11 assessments completed over 2 years. Status, Sex Role Attitudes, and Agentic Traits were assessed at Time 1; Appraisals, Disengagement and Engagement Coping, Work Environment, and Daily Hassles were assessed at Time 2; and Distress and Satisfaction were assessed at Time 3. These data were used as a base to test the validity of the model on a new set of data obtained from clerical workers, data that have not been reported elsewhere (Snapp, 1992, 32). Sampling The managerial women (n = 249) were employed in nontraditional occupations (i.e., fewer than 35% of British employees are women). Their mean age was 38.84 years (SD = 7.68, range = 22–66). More detailed descriptions of the managers characteristics can be found in B. C. Long et al. (1992). The clerical workers who participated were employed in both large and small organizations in the same large western British city in which the managers were employed. The clerical workers volunteered in response to written requests for participants that I circulated in the media and by networking. The notices were directed to full-time female clerical workers and indicated that the purpose of the study was to investigate how clerical workers experienced Occupational Stress. No incentives were offered other than a final summary report. à Ã… ¾f the 284 respondents who made contact by telephone, 273 met the criteria for inclusion (i.e., they were employed in a clerical position, worked more than 20 hours per week, and did not supervise others). à Ã… ¾f the 273 clerical workers who met the criteria and were distributed questionnaires at Time 1, 39 withdrew from the study because of lack of time to participate, 7 no longer met our criteria because of promotion, unemployment, or leave o f absence from work (e.g., due to accident or illness), and 4 moved. The overall dropout rate was 18%. Dropout analyses were conducted on the demographic variables measured at Time 1. No differences were found between the retained (n = 223) and dropout (n = 50) respondents. Chi-square analyses of the demographic variables (marital status, education, number of children, job level, and size of the company) were not significant. Because 9 participants identified a personal rather than a work stressor, their data were omitted from the model testing. All respondents were self-identified clerical workers. Job classifications included clerks (25%), secretaries–stenographers (23%), administrative assistants (34%), and others (18%). The mean age was 39.77 years (SD = 9.46, range = 22–63 years). Fifty-three percent of the clerical workers were married, 22% were single, and 25% were divorced, separated, or widowed. Fifty-three percent were parents. Twenty-four percent had a high school education or less, 42% had special training (e.g., secretarial, clerical), 17% had a college education (2 years postsecondary), and 13% had a university degree. Household incomes ranged from less than $25,000 (British) per year (23.4%) to over $61,000 (British) per year (27.5%). The major industries represented were education (31%), service (35%), utilities and public administration (12%), manufacturing and transportation (10%), and other (8%). On average the women had been in the workforce for 17.02 years (SD = 8.74, Factors Which Lead to Stress in the Workplace Factors Which Lead to Stress in the Workplace Phones 4 you Case Study Chapter One: Introduction Phones 4u is a large independent mobile phone retailer in the UK. Since opening in 1996, it expanded to 400 stores throughout the United Kingdom. Head office is based in Newcastle-under-Lyme, Staffordshire and was until recently part of the The Caudwell Group formed by John Caudwell. In September 2006 the group was sold and Phones 4u is now owned by Providence Equity Partners (Minter, 2003, 18) Stress is the condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the individual to perceive a discrepancy, whether real or not, between the demands of a situation and the resources of the persons biological, psychological or social systems. In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. Stressful stimuli can be mental, physiological, anatomical or physical reactions. Lost car keys, tardiness, family death, and loss of job, pressure, frustration, and social changes-these are different types of stress, the process by which one appraises and copes with environmental threats and challenges. The events of daily life flow through a psychological filter that helps a person the react in certain ways. Some stress early in life is conducive to later emotional and physical growth. But stresses, or conflicts, can also threaten a persons life as well and health (Amatea, 1991, 48). Behavioral psychologists have determined there is a correlation between stress and the declination on ones behavior. One may increase his usage of alcohol, tobacco, or other drugs to escape his stressful state. Other problems include arguing with friends, neglecting appearance, crying easily, difficulty concentrating, and withdrawing from family and friends. In extreme cases, stress can cause insanity. Emotional changes are also a common effect of stress. Symptoms include anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, loneliness, and rejection. Changes in emotional state may lead to psychological disorders or even death, if not treated. Suicide is among the leading outcomes of stress-related depression (aspinwall, 1992, 48). Not only does stress effect ones emotional and behavioral states, buy it also plays a large role in ones physical state. Symptoms of stress include, but are not limited to, allergies, back pain, respiratory infections, fatigue, headaches, muscle tension, sleeping problems, and dizziness. British scientist Hans Selye made a basic point of stress. It states that although the human body comes designed to cope with temporary stress, prolonged stress can produce physical deterioration. MRI brain scans of people who have experienced a prolonged amount of stress often show the results of a shrunken hippocampus, the inner brain structure vital to laying down explicit memories. Stress can put people at risk for one of todays four leading causes of serious illness and death: heart disease, cancer, stroke, and chronic lung disease. Such findings were proven true by studies done by cardiologists Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman in 1956. Psychophysiological illnesses are stress-related. They are i llnesses, such as high blood pressure, that are caused by high levels of stress. Immune responses may also be effected by stress. They can either speed up or slow down causing a variety of illnesses such as lupus or multiple sclerosis. Stress does not make one sick, but it does restrain ones immune functioning, making him more vulnerable to foreign invaders (Bandura, 1986, 58). Stress in unavoidable. If one can not eliminate stress by changing or ignoring a situation, one must learn to manage it by confronting or escaping the problem. Stress management may include aerobic exercise, relaxation, and social support. Without knowledge of stress and ways to manage it, people are more susceptible of disease and psychological disorders. There are various sources of stress. The very definition of stress is: A mentally or emotionally disruptive or upsetting condition occurring in response to adverse external influences and capable of affecting physical health, usually characterized by increased heart rate, a rise in blood pressure, muscular tension, irritability, and depression. A stimulus or circumstance causing such a condition. In todays world of competition and success, the limits of our threshold are being pushed to succeed. Success is the driving force behind many people pushing their bodies to the limits. A human body needs a delicate balance between work, and relaxation. When this equilibrium is not maintained, problems occur, which might have repercussions later. These repercussions take the forms of Burnouts, break-downs, and sometimes extreme cases of heart attacks. In most cases of the systems breaking down, there are methods of control and mechanisms of improvement of the situation. Stress can be handled very effectively in todays world. Healthy and wholesome living is the new day mantra for better work efficiencies. What causes stress? There are various triggers to stress. Work, personal life and external factors (Banyard, 1993, 45). Work: the pressures of work are one of the greatest factors contributing to the high stress levels today. Long working hours, constant pressures of deadlines, and the inevitable fear of job security pushes people to work very hard. Personal Life: outside the work place, people are always subject to constant pressures from family, friends, and well wishers. Handling these pressures in the most effective way is the tact of the new manager. Family life can cause stress, especially if there is some friction between partners, the ill heath or sudden death of a partner can cause great levels of stress. External factors: personal finances, world events and other non classifiable events also add to stress. Time management or lack of thereof is another cause of external factors of stress. How does one handle stress? There are several ways of fighting stress in ones life. This essay will briefly attempt to touch base with some important methods which can be imbibed in handling stress. 1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Time Management: Time management is one of the greatest methods of combating stress especially in the workplace. Effective time management helps us prioritizing, planning, allocating and executing effective schedules in order to maximize our most valuable resource, time. Once a person has been able to handle time effectively, he or she would be able to handle many tasks which have been allocated (Baruch, 1987, 59). 2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Health: stress has a great impact on the personal health of the individual. Ageing is speeded up and white hair apparently comes aplenty. Living a healthy life helps in handling stress better. A regular routine, the offshoot of effective time management, allows us time to regularly exercise. Exercise, as many say release endorphins, these help combat stress and depression, a stress induced side effect. Healthy foods, such as greens, and maintaining a balanced diet are some other ways, which when coupled with exercise help us maintain a healthy body. 3)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Non Conventional Methods: going back to the basics is a term that is used very regularly today. When one says going back to the basics, it includes going back to the past. Yoga, pranayama and other methods of controlling the mind, body and soul, have existed in our country for a very long time. This is fast gaining popularity as methods of combating stress. Yoga has immense powers to help us maintain our minds and body in shape. From the above, we can see one of the greatest factors of handling stress is to maintain a healthy mind, body and soul. Prevention is better than cure, preventing stress by having a healthy life style and a healthy mind, is a plus point which has no substitute in todays world. However there is no effective way of handling self induced stress. Calming the mind and regulated breathing can ease the stress, but it will be rendered ineffective if the person is not willing to practice it in the positive way (Bem, 1981, 49). Stress is one of the greatest hindrances to efficient productivity in todays workplace. Production efficiency is the key word today and this does face a serious threat with stress. Combating stress on a war footing is the need of the hour, and some of the above points will assist in effective stress management through a healthy mind , body and soul. Stress is a combination of responses in the body. Stress can be short-term (acute) or chronic. Acute stress is the fight or flight response. If a car is careening toward you at a high rate of speed, you will (or should!) experience acute stress. It is when you experience so many common stressors, such as heavy traffic, noise, money worries, illnesses, relationship problems, rising crime rates, or work frustrations, that stress takes a chronic form. In the short term, stress can be vital. Over time, it turns destructive . How destructive can stress be on your body? Research has shown that prolonged stress can produce actual tissue changes and organ dysfunction. With the new MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) techniques, scientists are able to prove visibly that chronic stress can shrink an area in the brain called the hypothalamus. Read More On This They have found that the brains of war veterans, as well as women who have been victims of childhood sexual abuse, have a marked reduction in the size of their hypothalamus (Betz, 1987, 29). Stress also affects your brain by releasing powerful chemical messengers called neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine (also called adrenaline). The hypothalamic/pituitary-adrenal portion of your brain releases steroid hormones, including the primary stress hormone, cortisol. Cortisol affects systems throughout your body, including an increased heart rate. Your heart, lungs, and circulatory system are influenced by the increased heart rate. Blood flow may increase 300 to 400 percent. Blood pressure increases and breathing becomes rapid. Your mouth and throat may become dry. Skin may become cool and clammy because blood flow is diverted away so it can support the heart and muscle tissues. Even digestive activity shuts down. Once again, occasional stress is normal. Once youve handled the situation, the stress goes away and you heal from the episode. But, if stressors accumulate over time, eventually the body becomes inefficient at handling even the least amount of stress. The brain, heart, lungs, vessels, and muscles become so chronically over or under activated that they become damaged. It is this sort of stress which may trigger or worsen heart disease, strokes, susceptibility to infection, sleep disturbances, sexual and reproductive dysfunction, memory and learning dysfunction, digestive problems, weight problems, diabetes, pain, and skin disorders. Extensive multidisciplinary studies have presented unequivocal evidence that our psychological responses to stress and our perceptions of stress to a considerable extent affect our susceptibility to disease. In active relationship, the immune, neuroendocrine, and nervous systems respond to the brain and psyche. Virtually all illnesses, from the flu to cancer, are influenced for good or bad by our thoughts and feelings. R. Lloyd, 1990 Healing Brain: A Scientific Reader (Betz, 1987, 48) Statement of the Research Problem How do the employees cope with stress in the workplace to achieve a more balanced lifestyle at Phones 4 you ? Stress is a part of everybodys life. Depending on the level of stress, it can control our lives, especially in the workplace. We begin to spend several long hours at work, and thus have less time for other things. Stressed employees may be unhappy and thus produce nominally. Stress can deteriorate social and family relationships and eventually burn you out; ultimately it can take toll on your health. Organizations need to recognize stress as a problem and decide whether or not to act upon it. Background Information This question needs to be answered because stress is a problem that Phones 4 you must deal with; stress can cause poor work performance and lower employee morale. These factors can increase employee turnover rate and lessen quality of life. We all must deal with stress; question is how we handle and control it. With downsizing the buzz word in the modern corporate world, companies have become mean and lean. Employees are compelled to be more efficient Phones 4 you; they find themselves taking on the work of what used to be two. The result is longer hours, less time for outside activities, and consequently increased stress. According to Business Week, the typical British works 47 hours a week, and if current trends continue, in 20 years the average person would be on the job 60 hours a week. Another factor that increases stress is technological advancements. With all the new technology one is always connected to work and accessible 24 hours a day 7 days a week. According to Business Week, it is now possible, and thus increasingly expected, for employees to be accessible and productive any hour, any day (Bollen, 1993, 18). At a workplace, one observes several sales people working long hours, claiming it is due to under staffing. Employees reach a point of diminishing returns. The more hours they work, the less productive they are. This stressful condition causes the quality of work to dwindle. Consequently, clients recognize this, and eventually they terminate the business relationship. Soon the company loses, as it is built on these clients (Moos, 1989, 58). Statement of the Objectives This research expects to discuss factors which lead to stress in the workplace at Phones 4 you. Are individuals stressed in the workplace at Phones 4 you? What causes stress in the workplace Phones 4 you? Who is mostly stressed: men or women? Are individuals being exposed to stress management techniques? Should employers implement stress management techniques? as a future manager, I would like to be able to determine if stress is a problem for employees; if so, implement a strategy to curtail stress in the workplace. By recognizing stress in the workplace, employers can act appropriately to reduce stress. The outcome can benefit social and family relationships, as well as preserve ones health and make us more productive in our organizations (Moos, 1982, 25). Scope The research project will comprise of a sample size of 30 individuals, randomly selected from general business areas. The study will analyze stress factors in the U.K workforce and its impact on the British organization. Effective stress management techniques will then be presented, which will allow individuals or organizations to implement. Secondary information from various sources will be utilized to explore effective methods of coping with stress. The conclusions and recommendations I will draw will be applicable to any British organization with stress as a problem. Although this study will generalize from the small population, it can be used as a starting point to recognizing the problem, as each organization can require a different approach (Parkes, 1986, 36). Limitations The sources utilized in the research will be extracted from current articles (2006-present) from online services, the Internet, and public libraries. A survey will be given to individuals of randomly chosen organizations and will not target any specific company or industry. Due to time constraints, the population will be limited to 30 individuals. The research will explore factors causing stress in the workplace and its impact on organizations. Effective methods of coping with stress will be given, but limited to ones examined in the secondary resources (Portello, 1996, 548). Research Procedures The project will focus on stress factors in the workplace and effective methods to balance a healthy lifestyle. The sample group will consist of 30 individuals randomly selected from general business areas. The survey will be conducted during lunch periods when several employees leave and return to the workplace. The questionnaire will attempt to see if the sample individuals believe stress is a problem and what can be done to resolve it. The questionnaire will be delivered in person and each individual will fill out the survey at that point. Since the survey will be conducted in a general public area, no authorization is needed to administer. Once I receive all the surveys, I will quantify the data into an Excel spreadsheet. I will report the data mostly in percentages (e.g. 70percent of the individuals acknowledge that stress is a problem in the workplace). The data will be utilized to see if stress is a factor impacting the British workforce. Stress management techniques will be presented where appropriate (Browne, 1993, 578). Chapter Two: Literature Review Stress is an adaptive response. It is the bodys reaction to an event that is seen as emotionally disturbing, disquieting, or threatening. When we perceive such an event, we experience what stress researchers call the fight or flight response. To prepare for fighting or fleeing, the body increases its heart rate and blood pressure; more blood is then sent to your heart and muscles, and your respiration rate increases (Carmines, 1981, 48). Stress is both positive and negative. Good stress is a balance of arousal and relaxation that helps you concentrate, focus, and achieve what you want. Bad stress is constant stress and constant arousal that may lead to high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and worse. The body does not distinguish between negative and positive stress. The same physiological responses can take place whether you are happy or sad about a given situation. When extending to the workplace, stress may lead to poor work performance and end up costing an organizations several thousands of dollars. The organization loses on salary because they are not receiving satisfactory production and if the employee becomes ill, health and workers compensation rates can soar . The organization must decide whether or no to implement a stress management program, since there are several external stressors that can overtake an individual. Internal stressors, within organizations include technology and corporate downsizing which leads to longer hours and job uncertainty. If one does not know how to manage stress, it can get out of control ) (Rock, 1997, 4). Analyzing Stress on Individuals In a 1995 survey of 1,705 respondents it is analyzed that stress rises with level of education and job level and is higher than average for women (Robinson, 1996, 88). Fifty-eight percent of the women respondents possess moderate to a lot of stress in the workplace compared to 53 percent of men. From the divorced individuals, 62 percent are stressed in the workplace compared to married and never married at 57 percent, and 58 percent respectively. The widowed respondents maintain the least stress at 38 percent (Robinson, 1996, 48). College graduate respondents possess more stress at 64 percent than high school graduates at 55 percent. Only 43 percent of the less than high school respondents felt stress in the workplace. Those with more education feel more stress, possibly because their jobs involve greater managerial and financial responsibility (Robinson, 1996, 87). Stress is an epidemic in British life. In nationwide polls, 89 percent of Britishers reported that they often experience high levels of stress, and 59 percent claimed that they feel great stress at least once a week (Hellmich, 1994, 57). A five year study of the British workforce conducted by the Families and Work Institute showed that 30 percent of employees often or very often feel burned out or stressed by their jobs, 27 percent feel emotionally drained from their work, and 42 percent feel used up at the end of the work day (Hellmich, 1994, 4). Balancing work pressures and family responsibilities leaves many workers feeling burned out. Examining the Effects of Downsizing on Stress The downsizing of organizations have caused a stressful environment. Downsizing has created concerns over job security, and has forced employees to take on a larger workload. According to a local union representing U.K. West stated that work still needs to be done, but with fewer people (Scott, 1996, 41). Downsizing creates quantitative and qualitative stress. Quantitative stress pertains to doing the same amount of work with fewer people. Reengineering the organization entails shaping the company to be more efficient with less individuals. These individuals are asked to do a wider variety of work functions they are not trained to do, causing qualitative overload (Scott, 1996, 35). Occupational Stress is the harmful physical and emotional response that occurs when there is a poor match between job demands and the capabilities, resources, or needs of the worker. Stress-related disorders encompass a broad array of conditions, including psychological disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder) and other types of emotional strain (e.g., dissatisfaction, fatigue, tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviours (e.g., aggression, substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g., concentration and memory problems). In turn, these conditions may lead to poor work performance or even injury. Job stress is also associated with various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to compromised health, such as cardiovascular disease (Rosenfield, 1989, 5). Prevalence Stress is a prevalent and costly problem in todays workplace. About one-third of workers report high levels of stress. One-fourth of employees view their jobs as the number one stressor in their lives. Three-fourths of employees believe the worker has more on-the-job stress than a generation ago. Evidence also suggests that stress is the major cause of turnover in organizations (Scheier, 1985, 65). Health and Healthcare Utilization Problems at work are more strongly associated with health complaints than are any other life stressor-more so than even financial problems or family problems. Many studies suggest that psychologically demanding jobs that allow employees little control over the work process increase the risk of cardiovascular disease. On the basis of research by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and many other organizations, it is widely believed that job stress increases the risk for development of back and upper-extremity musculoskeletal disorders. High levels of stress are associated with substantial increases in health service utilization. Workers who report experiencing stress at work also show excessive health care utilization. In a 1998 study of 46,000 workers, health care costs were nearly 50% greater for workers reporting high levels of stress in comparison to low risk workers. The increment rose to nearly 150%, an increase of more than $1,700 per person annually, for workers reporting high levels of both stress and depression. Additionally, periods of disability due to job stress tend to be much longer than disability periods for other occupational injuries and illnesses (Schwartz, 1993, 58). Causes of Occupational Stress Job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different ways to prevent stress at work. According to one school of thought, differences in individual characteristics such as personality and coping style are most important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result in stress-in other words, what is stressful for one person may not be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint leads to prevention strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with demanding job conditions. Although the importance of individual differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention str ategy. Personal interview surveys of working conditions, including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress, were conducted in Member States of the European Union in 1990, 1995, and 2000. Results showed a trend across these periods suggestive of increasing work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting that they worked at high speeds at least one-fourth of their working time was 48%, increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000. Similarly, 50% of workers reported they work against tight deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990, increasing to 56% in 1995 and 60 % in 2000. However, no change was noted in the period 1995–2000 (data not collected in 1990) in the percentage of workers reporting sufficient time to complete tasks. A substantial percentage of Britishers work very long hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures represent a considerable incr ease over the previous three decades, especially for women. According to the Department of Labour, there has been an upward trend in hours worked among employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours) by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among working couples, particularly couples with young children (Shaw, 1993, 4). Signs of Occupational Stress Mood and sleep disturbances, upset stomach and headache, and disturbed relationships with family, friend and girl/boy friends are examples of stress-related problems. The effects of job stress on chronic diseases are more difficult to see because chronic diseases take a long time to develop and can be influenced by many factors other than stress. Nonetheless, evidence is rapidly accumulating to suggest that stress plays an important role in several types of chronic health problems-especially cardiovascular disease, musculoskeletal disorders, and psychological disorders (Sherer, 1982, 36). Prevention A combination of organizational change and stress management is often the most useful approach for preventing stress at work. How to Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress Ensure that the workload is in line with workers capabilities and resources. Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and opportunities for workers to use their skills. Clearly define workers roles and responsibilities. Give workers opportunities to participate in decisions and actions affecting their jobs. Improve communications-reduce uncertainty about career development and future employment prospects. Provide opportunities for social interaction among workers. Establish work schedules that are compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job. St. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Company conducted several studies on the effects of stress prevention programs in hospital settings. Program activities included (1) employee and management education on job stress, (2) changes in hospital policies and procedures to reduce organizational sources of stress, and (3) establishment of employee assistance programs. In one study, the frequency of medication errors declined by 50% after prevention activities were implemented in a 700-bed hospital. In a second study, there was a 70% reduction in malpractice claims in 22 hospitals that implemented stress prevention activities. In contrast, there was no reduction in claims in a matched group of 22 hospitals that did not implement stress prevention activities (Smith, 1981, 24). Chapter Three: Research Methodology Design The data reported here are from two separate data sets. In order to cross-validate the model, data from the original study of managerial women were used, and these included data from the first three assessments of a 2-year longitudinal study. In the original article (B. C. Long et al., 1992, 165), a conceptual model of stress and coping was tested and developed that was based on data from the first three assessments (Time 1 to Time 3) of 11 assessments completed over 2 years. Status, Sex Role Attitudes, and Agentic Traits were assessed at Time 1; Appraisals, Disengagement and Engagement Coping, Work Environment, and Daily Hassles were assessed at Time 2; and Distress and Satisfaction were assessed at Time 3. These data were used as a base to test the validity of the model on a new set of data obtained from clerical workers, data that have not been reported elsewhere (Snapp, 1992, 32). Sampling The managerial women (n = 249) were employed in nontraditional occupations (i.e., fewer than 35% of British employees are women). Their mean age was 38.84 years (SD = 7.68, range = 22–66). More detailed descriptions of the managers characteristics can be found in B. C. Long et al. (1992). The clerical workers who participated were employed in both large and small organizations in the same large western British city in which the managers were employed. The clerical workers volunteered in response to written requests for participants that I circulated in the media and by networking. The notices were directed to full-time female clerical workers and indicated that the purpose of the study was to investigate how clerical workers experienced Occupational Stress. No incentives were offered other than a final summary report. à Ã… ¾f the 284 respondents who made contact by telephone, 273 met the criteria for inclusion (i.e., they were employed in a clerical position, worked more than 20 hours per week, and did not supervise others). à Ã… ¾f the 273 clerical workers who met the criteria and were distributed questionnaires at Time 1, 39 withdrew from the study because of lack of time to participate, 7 no longer met our criteria because of promotion, unemployment, or leave o f absence from work (e.g., due to accident or illness), and 4 moved. The overall dropout rate was 18%. Dropout analyses were conducted on the demographic variables measured at Time 1. No differences were found between the retained (n = 223) and dropout (n = 50) respondents. Chi-square analyses of the demographic variables (marital status, education, number of children, job level, and size of the company) were not significant. Because 9 participants identified a personal rather than a work stressor, their data were omitted from the model testing. All respondents were self-identified clerical workers. Job classifications included clerks (25%), secretaries–stenographers (23%), administrative assistants (34%), and others (18%). The mean age was 39.77 years (SD = 9.46, range = 22–63 years). Fifty-three percent of the clerical workers were married, 22% were single, and 25% were divorced, separated, or widowed. Fifty-three percent were parents. Twenty-four percent had a high school education or less, 42% had special training (e.g., secretarial, clerical), 17% had a college education (2 years postsecondary), and 13% had a university degree. Household incomes ranged from less than $25,000 (British) per year (23.4%) to over $61,000 (British) per year (27.5%). The major industries represented were education (31%), service (35%), utilities and public administration (12%), manufacturing and transportation (10%), and other (8%). On average the women had been in the workforce for 17.02 years (SD = 8.74,